History of Wind Power
What are Windmills?
Windmills are machines that convert the power from wind into kinetic
energy we can use. They come in different forms and can perform
a variety of tasks.
Windmills evolved after man learned to harness the wind to push the
sails of a boat. Similarly, windmills capture the wind by using
sails. Whereas sails on ships are fixed and are used to push a
boat in a single direction, windmill sails are fixed to a rotating shaft
(appropriately named the wind shaft) that turns machinery inside of it.
Many windmills are also fitted so that the sails can be turned in the
event the wind changes direction.
The sails can turn different machines, such as: saws used for cutting
lumber; a turbine to generate electricity; a screw to drain excess water
from low-laying areas; a pump to bring water from underground reservoirs
to the surface; a set of stones used to grind grain into flour; a grain
elevator for storing feed; or to run other farm machinery like
sharpening wheels, corn shellers, and hay balers.
Few windmills across the globe look exactly the same or serve the same
purpose. In general, there are three types of windmills:
custom
windmills,
wind
engines, and
wind turbines. The type of windmill built depends on the
location, the kind of work, and how much work it needs to perform.
The architecture of these windmills also varies from one country or
region to another.
Why use Windmills?
Windmills are often referred to as “ancient technology,” but the truth
is that although man has relied upon the wind for thousands of years,
its principles have not changed, and we are able to apply wind
technology to meet our modern needs. It is among the simplest
technologies on the planet; by observing the wind, we can see how it
easily pushes objects with an exposed surface area.
With the way we live nowadays, it’s easy to take something simple like a
loaf of bread for granted. Before the 20th century, people could
not just drive to the local supermarket and pick up some prepackaged,
pre-sliced bread—everything that was eaten had to be made completely
from scratch.
Wheat is now primarily grown in Nebraska and Kansas, but it used to be
grown in the Midwest, which is one of the reasons why there were once so
many mills in Illinois. The production of wheat is vital in a
society because wheat berries can be pulverized to create flour (from
which we make bread, pasta, cake, and many other foods) and bran (a key
ingredient in cereals). Corn can be pulverized to make cornmeal
(for bread and other recipes) and feed for farm animals.
Before electricity and the internal combustion engine made our lives
easier, settlements depended on natural resources for power.
Not every town had access to a river (or to a river that was
consistently strong enough) from which it could construct a
water-powered mill; animal-powered mills were not powerful enough; and
immigrants, who often sold all of their worldly possessions to bring
their families to America, could not afford to erect and maintain a
steam engine mill, which needs a constant supply of water (requiring a
wind engine to be purchased) and expensive coal. The wind provides
more than enough free power to turn machinery on a regular basis.
What has made wind power historically troublesome is its
unpredictability. Winds that can gently push fallen leaves on a
sunny fall afternoon can also just as easily tear off a roof in a
destructive storm. Despite this, technology has allowed mills to
adapt to changing wind conditions to keep our machines moving.
Unlike other energy sources, producing power from the wind does not
require heavy excavation of our natural resources; it does not produce
any pollution or burn any fossil fuels; it is the safest form of power
to use; and, it is a source of energy we can never run out of.
Wind Power Beginnings
The first practical application of wind energy was employed on sailing
ships. Used in ancient times, tall masts fixed on ships allowed
sailors to reef a sail, exposing a large surface area to “catch” the
wind and propel the ship. It was from this concept that the first
wind-powered machines were constructed on the land.
It is believed that the first small-scale windmill application was a
wind-powered pipe organ as documented by Greek architect Heron of
Alexandria. There are no definitive records, but it is likely that
windmills may have been used for other purposes in ancient Rome.
The first large-scale grinding windmills, built in what is now the
Middle East, were a far cry from the mills we now know. In fact,
they resembled revolving doors more than anything: these windmills were
constructed with rectangular upright sails that were fixed to a
vertically-lined shaft. As the wind blew, it turned the sails
circularly to drive machinery for grinding or irrigation (think of a
large anemometer).
Although it is unknown when, exactly, windmills were first used in
China, their first written record was around the 13th century. The
windmills there were modeled after the Persian design and were also used
for grinding and irrigation.
European Windmills
Windmills that were first introduced in Europe were constructed along
the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea. It is still unknown why
the windmill’s design was changed from the Persian vertical-axis to the
traditional horizontal-axis we are now accustomed to, but nonetheless
the concept was successful and led to further development of this type.
These were all stone tower mills resembling ships in that their sails
were, quite literally, of the same construction as those found on ships,
except that they were fixed to a rotating shaft. The cap and sails
were immobile in that they could not be turned if the wind direction
changed; such technology was unnecessary, however, because the wind
blows almost constantly from the coast.
When windmills were first built in England, France, and elsewhere, they
were truly crude machines. Their post-mills, constructed entirely
of wood, contained the design aspects to allow them to function, but
were not constructed with the wind in mind. In order to keep the
sails into the wind, the entire windmill—balanced upon a post—had to be
turned. Because they lacked a braking system, these mills could
only be stopped by turning them away from the wind and stopping their
motion by hand.
While these windmills were primitive, they still acquired key
characteristics typical to custom windmills. They were constructed
with lattice-framed sails fixed to an inclined wind shaft and could
perform a multitude of duties under the right circumstances.
Dutch Windmills
Four-sailed custom windmills are often immediately labeled—sometimes
incorrectly— as Dutch windmills. The reason for this common
mistake is because the Dutch are famous not only for their thousands of
windmills but also for their technological advancements long before
their innovations were scientifically proven. The Dutch truly
perfected windmills; in fact, their design basics are still used in
today’s wind turbines. Although other European countries have
their own architectural version of the windmill, they are patterned from
the Dutch design.
The Dutch probably began constructing windmills in the late 1200s, but
these post mills, like those in England and France, were used for
grinding. At that time, Holland—largely below sea level—was, in
fact, under water, and often plagued by flooding. It was not until
the 1400s when flood control systems (the famous dykes) were put in
place that large numbers of windmills were constructed.
To drain the abundance of water, the Dutch turned to their greatest
natural resource, the wind. Drain mills led to the development of
the hollow post, or “wip” mill, a significant improvement from the
earlier European post mills. The larger, stationary base housed
the pumping equipment (an Archimedean screw or a scoop wheel), and the
upper portion, which could pivot into the wind, contained the mill
gearing.
Wip mills were also constructed with many of the aspects Dutch windmills
are known for, including: a tail-pole luffing system; lattice-framework
sails with a tapering angle of weather and removable sail-boards; and a
Flemish brake system, one in which the miller tugs on a rope (or chain)
to activate a band brake that encircles a brake wheel.
In the wake of wip mills’ success in reclaiming the land, Dutch tower
smock mills began developing. Like the wip mills, the Dutch
realized that the machinery of the mill itself had no need to be turned
and thus were placed in the stationary tower; the sails, which needed to
be turned if the direction of the wind changed, were installed in the
cap, which could pivot 360 degrees. The result was the
stereotypical octagonal tower, four-sailed windmill most common in
Holland.
It is interesting to note that Dutch windmills use reed thatch to cover
their sides; shingles are unheard of there. The fact that
windmills of the same style used in Illinois have shingles makes them
particularly unique to our country.
The Dutch, above all others, employed windmills to perform many
industrial jobs, including grinding, sawing, pulverizing, pressing,
pumping, draining, and lifting. At the peak of their popularity,
Holland had over 9,000 working windmills. It’s no wonder Dutch
windmill design spread to many European countries, America, Canada, and
even Japan.
American Windmills
The first windmills in America were likely English post mills
constructed in colonial Virginia (replicas of these mills have been
constructed at Colonial Williamsburg and Flowerdew Hundred). The
Dutch and English both brought windmills to their colonies in the
Northeast, many of which still stand in the New England states and in
New York.
Although we label them as Dutch, most of the custom grinding windmills
in Illinois were actually constructed by German immigrants, oftentimes
with the aid of other area farmers and Dutch craftsmen, incorporating
architectural elements from other European windmills. You can read
more about custom windmills in Illinois
here.
America is better known for its development of the
wind
engine, capable of effortlessly pumping water from underground
reservoirs in areas where a source of water is not present. This
not only made it easier for pioneers to settle the western states, but
also allowed railroads (which used steam-powered locomotives) to expand
across the nation.
Windmills Today
Now that our priorities have changed, we harness the wind to generate
electricity—an important initiative for Illinois which has, historically, depended upon coal,
nuclear, and gas power plants.
As early as the late 1800s, windmills were being used to
generate electricity. The first successful application was a
giant wind engine built by Charles F. Brush, which powered his home in
Cleveland, OH.
In Denmark, Poul la Cour constructed several windmills and established
the first wind electrician society. He believed that custom
windmills could be repurposed to generate electricity, especially with
the aid of unique sail design. His findings led to many important
wind turbine developments; it’s no coincidence that Vestas, the global
leader in wind turbine manufacturing, was established in Denmark.
Many European nations developed and perfected wind turbines through the
course of the twentieth century. The Department of Energy and NASA
both worked to create efficient utility-scale wind turbines, especially
after the oil embargos of the 1970s.
Although wind turbines have been used by electric utilities for decades,
they have only recently been considered as permanent replacement power
sources to fossil fuels as concerns for the environment have increased.
Wind engines are still used in the Southwest states and around the world
where water is in short supply. Some of the original wind engine
manufacturers are still in business and are making clean water
accessible for thousands.
Custom windmills, sadly, were largely destroyed; only a few in America
have been preserved, whereas windmills in Holland are protected as
national treasures. The often fell victim to wind damage, fire,
neglect, and demolition. Their usefulness ended around the
beginning of the twentieth century as engines permanently replaced
mills.
The mills that survived are now being restored to their former glory as
living history museums; some are even capable once again of grinding
grist.
Windmills Tomorrow
There is no doubt that, controversial though they may be, wind turbines
will eventually provide the bulk of the energy we will consume so that
we may become less dependent upon fossil fuels. Our best turbines
are capable of sustaining around 2 MW, but more efficient turbines are
bound to be designed and employed where the winds are most favorable.
Perhaps Poul la Cour’s experiments of using custom windmills as turbines
will become a reality for the thousands of remaining mills, or windmills
could become a fashionable housing trend, as companies like ArchWind
hope to accomplish. Regardless of their use and style, wind
machines will continue to power mankind.
Wind Technology
Timeline
3000 B.C.
Humankind’s first use of wind power: wind is harnessed by using a mast
and sail to propel boats.
0 to 200 A.D.
Romans introduce wind-powered machines.
500 to 1000
Vertical-axis windmills are used in Persia to grind grist and pump
water.
1000s
Tower mills develop along the Mediterranean coast line. The early
tower mills were perfectly cylindrical in shape, used primitive sails,
and usually could not be rotated into the wind.
1200s
The first European windmills are built among the English and French.
These primitive post mills were small, simple, fitted with paddle-like
sails, and lacked any luffing or braking mechanisms.
1200s to 1300s
Persians are invited to erect windmills for irrigation in China.
1400s
The first windmills for pumping water—hollow post “wip” mills—are used
for land drainage in the Netherlands.
1500s
The Dutch perfect construction of the smock windmill and the Dutch sail,
about 200 years before Smeaton proves it mathematically.
1600s
Windmills arrive in America. The English bring the first post
mills to the Jamestown, VA settlement. The Dutch bring windmills
to their settlements in New Amsterdam (Manhattan Island, NY) and New
England
1693
Under Holland law, windmills are required to be named.
1745
Edmund Lee invents the tail fan, which allows the wind to automatically
luff the cap of a mill into the eye of the wind. This invention is
only popular in England, Germany, and Denmark.
1759
English millwright John Smeaton publishes the results of his research,
“An Experimental Inquiry concerning the Natural Powers of Water and Wind
to turn Mills and other Machines depending on Circular Motion.”
His findings lead to important design changes in English mills and
encourages some to build five, six, and eight-sail windmills. He
also concludes, however, that the steam engine is more capable of heavy
industry than wind power.
1787—1789
English millwrights Mead, Rennie, and Hooper apply the centrifugal
governor to automatically tenter the distance between grinding stones.
1805
Sir Francis Beaufort created a wind scale based on its effects on the
land, used by some millers in England.
1807
The “patent sail” is conceived by English millwright William Cubitt,
using a series of weights and pulleys to pivot shutters on windmill
sails
1850
The “Golden Age” of windmills in Holland: over 9,000 working windmills
in the country.
1854
Daniel Halladay of Connecticut patents the self-governing wind pump.
1857
The U. S. Wind Engine and Pump Company established in Batavia, IL
1865—1875
Many custom windmills are built in Illinois after the Civil War;
Illinois is the center of wheat and corn production in the U.S.
1865—1900
Windmill manufacturing companies are operating all over the Midwest;
wind engines can be ordered from a catalog and shipped directly to the
customer.
1888
Charles F. Brush uses a huge wind engine to power his home, making it
the first successful wind-powered electric turbine.
1897
Poul la Cour, a Danish meteorologist and teacher, constructs a
traditional Danish windmill to produce electricity.
1900
Only 2500 operating windmills are left in Holland.
1904
Poul la Cour forms the Society of Wind Electricians.
1924
The Dutch Windmill Society is formed to preserve the remaining Dutch
windmills, which were used in the absence of other energy sources during
World War I.
1931
Darrieus designs the first vertical-axis wind turbine, later nicknamed
the “eggbeater” turbine.
1932
Rear-Admiral Richard E. Byrd brings a Jacobs wind turbine to the
Antarctic.
1941
The world’s first 1 MW wind turbine is erected atop Grandpa’s Knob,
Castleton, VT.
1960s
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the U.S.
Department of Energy work to create more efficient wind turbines.
1970s
Oil embargos renew wind technology research.
1973—1974
A large, efficient 3.2 MW turbine, developed by Westinghouse Electric
for the Department of Energy, is installed on the island of Oahu,
Hawaii.
1981—1984
California takes a great lead in wind power after installing 6,870 wind
turbines.
1990s
First offshore wind farms are constructed in Europe.
2000s
Energy initiatives create wind farms across the United States and
Europe, both on and offshore.
2003
Mendota Hills wind farm is brought online; it is the first of its kind
in Illinois.
2005
Illinois Windmills website is launched.
2008
The world’s largest and most efficient turbine, the Enercon E-126, is constructed in Germany at 7 Megawatts.
